All posts by: Kermit

Teacher-talk about students and families of color

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Pollack, T. (2012). Unpacking everyday teacher-talk about students and families of color: Implications for teacher and school leader development. Urban Education. Vol. 48. Issue 6.

Analysis

This article examines daily dialog between teachers about their perceptions and conceptions of students of color. The author refers to this daily dialog as informal “teacher talk”. The article was well organized and well written, while the argument was developed and the analysis was informative and refreshing.The author critically examines the casual, teacher discourse about student’s racial and cultural differences. The data was collected through participants’ journal entries, group discussion, and interviews. The article reported that the findings revealed three dominant deficit-based discursive themes embedded in informal teacher discourse about students of color.

The findings of the article reported the need to heighten educators’ critical awareness of deficit discourse and its relationship to teaching, learning, and issues of equity. According to Pollack, the research does outline some assumptions about culturally relevant pedagogy and its meaning for intercultural learning. He states that “this article will likely be of interest to educational administration faculty, teacher educators, K-12 educators, and those studying school culture”. The article clearly demonstrated a coherent theoretical framework. And provides a formula for creating a successful analysis of dialog between teachers to create a more culturally sensitive environment classroom.

Summary

The article had a profound impact on the field based on the persuasive power of “stories” or conversations. The assertion was made that stories are particularly relevant to understanding how racist views are asserted in less overt and more socially acceptable ways through everyday discourse about others. This concept made me think of how deeply racial jokes are connected to racism. As if it’s possible for a person to refer to them self as “not racist”, but be ok with telling racist jokes. The example the author gave was Van Dijk (1987) found that many conversational stories told by whites about people of color “make negative conclusions credible and defensible, so that the general norm of an ethnic of tolerance is, apparently, not violated”. The author also referenced Denzin (1994), who said stories can also represent individual and group identity in opposition to the “Others” we portray; in this way we communicate who we are by making clear who we are not.

Conclusions

This study offers a sobering look at the nature and content of teacher talk about students of color, their families. The article was of particular interest to me and my former community of practice, as I have experienced (overheard) the racist and discriminatory rants by teachers. It was fascinating to know that someone had researched the effects of this damming dialog and wrote about it. I agree with the claim the article makes that deeply engrained in the everyday culture of schools, these narratives are often unheard, unacknowledged, or seen as harmless. This could have a devastating effective on everyone at the school if the information landed on the wrong ears. I could especially identify with the author’s claim that deficit-based teacher discourse is not harmless and is supported by the participants’ reflections on the deficit narratives they have heard. The crux of the article dismantles the deficit-based teacher talk about students and families of color and shines a light on teachers’ low expectations and negative assumptions about students of color. Personally, I feel that low expectations for students may destroy teachers’ ability teacher with a “blinders off” approach. It stifles their creativity and sense of self-efficacy. Moreover, justifying differential treatment and teaching practices, policies, and teacher behavior are all associated with inferior educational experiences and opportunities for students of color.

References

Denzin, N. K. (1994). The art and politics of interpretation. (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Van Dijk, T. A. (1987). Communicating racism: Ethnic prejudice in thought and talk. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Educating the Educator

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Analysis of Changing Practice

In summary; this article presents the theoretical frame work of research in an effort to “educate the educator”. The author suggests that as part of changing our activity in changing circumstances we need to consider the most politically critical sites of political change.

From this article I outlined three main points:

Main point I. We need to make familiar and recognizable our own everyday possibilities for revolutionary praxis and take them up in our research practices.

Main Point II. That we take seriously the understanding of research as craft, and both learning and changing identity as aspects of craftsmanship.

Main Point III. How can craft practice be constructed as learning, and learning as craft?

According to the author and several other scholars in research communities, we need to make familiar and recognizable our own everyday possibilities for revolutionary praxis and take them up in our research practices. The focal point is theory and practice of scholars and learning communities. The article seeks to examine some issues and questions for researchers and those concerned with lifelong learning. More specifically, The International Society for Cultural and Activity Research (ISCAR). ISCAR is a scientific association that aims at; developing multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical research on societal, cultural and historical dimensions of human practices. Also promoting mutual scientific communication and research cooperation among its members. The author urges ISCAR participants to reevaluate their research practices. ISCAR members and participants are blessed with the obligation of creating long-term theoretical and empirical research. Early on in the article the author made note of a noticeable shift in the direction that ISCAR research has taken over the last decade.

In evaluation of the article, I found that it was clear that the mission and vision behind the article is to encourage the researcher to form collaborative groups, and take part in political discussions. The author suggested taking part in demonstrations, and recognize struggles for change in our universities and communities more broadly, and to engage in critical analysis in order to change our own research (p.158). I recognized several key points and recurring themes such as research as our craft and craftsmanship. Several scholars referenced in the article discuss their approach to research and how to look, and what to look for. They offered a summary of the historical and political dimensions of our practices as researchers.

The article’s contribution to knowledge and its implications made me reflect on another article by author Mark Smith (2009). Smith referenced earlier work by Jean Lave and Etiene Wenger in communities of practice. In this article the authors discuss the idea that learning involves a deepening process of participation in a community of practice. Lave and Wenger (2009) suggest that organizational growth and development is hinged upon developing communities of practice which places a high value on working with groups.

In my opinion, I highly regard the theory of molding and shaping our research and research efforts by treating these research efforts as our craft and using innovation as our craftsmanship tool, much like the ISCAR participants did. I believe the understanding of research as craft, and both learning and changing identity as aspects of craftsmanshipwill make forrevolutionary praxis in our research practices.

References

Lave, J. (2012). Changing Practice. Mind, Culture, and Activity. Routledge 19 (2), 156-171.

Smith, M. (2003, 2009). The Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Retrieved June 16th, 2014. www.infed.org/biblio/communities_of_practice.htm

Bolg 3; Caring Classrooms

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Research Blog Three

Battistich, V., Solomon, D., Watson, M. & Schaps, E. (2010). Caring School Communities; Creating a Caring Community in the Classroom. Published online; Routledge. 08 Jun 2010.

Strengths, Contributions and Ways to Improve; Graphic Organizer

Organization: The article was well organized and well written. The argument was developed and the analysis was informative.

Contribution to Field: The article’s contribution to the field was meaningful and significant.

Literature Review: The article did not provide a literature review.

Theoretical Framework/Lens: The article clearly demonstrated coherent theoretical framework. The research focused on creating a community of caring in the classroom.

Data Collection: Data was collected from The Child Development Project, as well as various sources.

Analysis: The article had a philosophical impact on current education action research.

Findings: The findings of the video were inconclusive however, the research does outline some assumptions about culturally relevant pedagogy and its meaning for intercultural learning.

Discussion/Conclusions: The article provides a formula for creating a successful classroom environment.

Minor Editorial Comments: No editorial comments for the article.

Miscellaneous: No miscellaneous comments for the article at this time.

 

Caring School Communities; Creating a Caring Community in the Classroom

The article; Creating a Caring Community in the Classroom discussed school change and intervention aimed at enhancing students social and ethical developments. This article was selected to advance my understanding of the culture of a great classroom environment. Furthermore, the subject is directly aligned with the week four theme of “leadership and innovation within action research”. What can be understood by researching prosocial development, providing students with opportunities to reach academic and social goals and provide meaningful pedagogy is the crux of this article.

The research for the study was conduct with teachers at three elementary schools that implemented the program over a 7-year period. The research team evaluated the program’s effectiveness by following a longitudinal cohort of students in those schools and in three other similar schools.

The major findings from the article were; schools differ greatly in the extent to which they can be characterized as caring communities. Second, school community is significantly related to a large number of desirable outcomes for both students and teachers. Third, a particular set of classroom activities and practices is related to the sense of community, with student behaviors.

How does the article relate to my own experiences? This article was very specific to my community of practice. As a former middle school teacher I was constantly seeking new ways to create a sense of “community” in the classroom. The data and research in the article was robust, in that it offered an analytical approach to building a successful classroom environment. This is a prime example of impact. As I reflect on my own experiences as a middle school classroom teacher, the research reminded me of the on-going efforts to create and maintain a professional learning community.

The Impact of the article on education research?

In my opinion, this article had a profound impact on my education action research. As a researcher, I find myself looking for new information and new methodologies to add to my bucket of knowledge. I chose this article because it provided me with a better understanding of classroom culture which is directly aligned with my area of inquiry. The article offered fresh perspectives and good insight that will benefit my area of inquiry in various ways. I hope to use this research to support my argument and to report a fresh perspective on an age old are of concern, the classroom.

Understanding White Logic and White Methods

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White Logic, White Methods; Racism and Methodology

Tukufu Zuberi and Eduardo Bonilla-Silva

Theme: Leadership and Innovation within Action Research

In the introduction, the authors state that this article is “an attack on White supremacy in contemporary research”. That statement was certainly an attention getter, as I knew right from the onset that this was going to be a very critical report. However, I have been suspicious of claims of racial inaccuracies in data for some time now. So my interests were piqued when the article claimed that sociological research is full of inaccuracies. The authors provide an interesting analysis on data by explaining that researchers reach beyond the data when they “interpret” their statistical results (p.7). Zuberi explains that “data does not tell a story”. That comment challenges what I have learned about data thus far. I have always thought data to be concrete and irrefutable. The author goes on to state that we use data to craft a story that comports with our understanding of the world. My question is how does our biased view of the world influence the data? The answer to my question may be held within the concept that “statistics is a system of estimation based on uncertainty”.

As Zuberi referenced and defended his book Thicker than Blood; How Racial Statistics Lie (2001), he made several claims about the misuse of statistics. Citing that “the silence about the misuse of racial statistics as a cover for wronghead ideas about race across academic disciplines that remains at the heart of the problem. I recognized similarities between their studies and the Stephen Gould article, The Mismeasure of Man (Gould, 1981). Zuberi and Bonilla-Silva initiate a full scale attack on faulty research calling it “White logic and White Methods”. The authors explain the problems White logic and White methods cause sociology and its practitioners. Much of the Gould article focused on the roots of racial biased inaccuracies in research and data reporting. The idea of biological inferiority was widely accepted by society, and was substantiated by science, research, and inquiry. Zuberi exposes those inaccuracies in this compelling work by referencing the history of social statistics. Zuberi explains that inaccuracies in social statistics originated when mathematical statistics and evolutionary theory met (p.5). And just as the Gould article demonstrated a racial hierarchy in social status, the Zuberi article discussed Francis Galton’s philosophy on racial hierarchy in social status. Galton’s ethnological inquiry (1892), was an investigation into the subject of hereditary genius which lends to Zuberi’s argument that statistical analysis was developed alongside a logic of racial reasoning. Furthermore, the article goes on to claim that the founder of statistical analysis developed the theory of White supremacy and racial inferiority of colonial and second class citizens. This same line of reasoning can be seen the Levins-Morales book Medicine Stories (Levins–Morales, 1998). In the book the author talks about the justification of slavery, and hierarchical methodologies. The author states that slavers that kidnapped millions of West African people found endless ways to justify their behavior, even to the extent of claiming that slavery was a civilizing influence on the lives of the enslaved. It was this faulty logic that fueled racial inequalities and racial data inaccuracies for centuries.

In conclusion, as we seek a better understanding of society, it is important that we base our reasoning and logic on sound principles and historically correct ethnographical data. The overall resounding message of White Logic, White Methods; Racism and Methodology is; faulty logic leads to a faulty understanding of the meaning of race, which leads to a faulty use of statistical methodology. The author explains that racial identity is about shared social status. However, the article felt hostile at times and left me wondering would it be offensive to White sociological researchers that are currently working, researching, to right the wrongs of their predecessors. This was ever so evident when Eduardo Bonilla-Silva reported in his vignette, that when discussing the genealogy of the racially inaccurate data with colleagues, he was accused of “fanning racial flames” and insinuating they were racists. Those claims ultimately led to his dismissal from the institution. The Zuberi article leads me to believe that in order to establish Leadership and Innovation within Action Research, there needs to be more dialog on the history of exclusion of people of color in sociology.

References

Galton, F., (1892). Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its laws and Consequences. Macmillan & Co. New York, NY.  

Gould, S., (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company.

Levins-Morales, A. (1998). Medicine Stories: History, Culture and the Politics of Identity. Cambridge: South End Press.

Zuberi. T., (2001). Thicker than Blood; How Racial Statistics Lie. University of Minnesota Press.

Education, Equity, Excellence; Research Blog

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Research Publication Blog Post Two

Reference:

Arauz, J.C., (November, 2012).E3 Presents: Education, Equity, Excellence- Three Part Video Series. YouTube, Part 1: What is educational excellence? Retrieved from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBEI6ilDv-0

 

Strengths, Contributions and Ways to Improve; Graphic Organizer

Organization: The video was well organized and directed. The narrator did develop the argument and the animation was creative.

Contribution to Field: The video’s contribution to the field was worthwhile and significant.

Literature Review: The video did not provide a literature review.

Theoretical Framework/Lens: The video clearly demonstrated coherence. The research focused on issues our nation faces with its current education system.

Data Collection: Data was collected from inner city schools with a predominately African American and Latino population.

Analysis: The video had a profound impact on current education action research.

Findings: The findings of the video were inconclusive however, the research does outline some assumptions about culturally relevant pedagogy and its meaning for intercultural learning.

Discussion/Conclusions: The video provides a formula for creating successful plans aimed at intercultural learning.

Minor Editorial Comments: No editorial comments for the article.

Miscellaneous: No miscellaneous comments for the article at this time.

 

 

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: Ingredients for critical teacher reflection

In the video, Education, Equity, Excellence (Part one, 2012) founder Dr. Juan Carlos Arauz discusses the problems and issues our nation faces with its current education system. This video is aimed at responding to the need of culturally relevant pedagogy. In this first video, Dr. Arauz poses the solution to the educational crisis in this country through a 3 part YouTube video series. This blog post will analyze the first video in the three part series. According the foundation’s website, Dr. Juan Carlos Arauz is the founding executive director of E3: Education, Excellence & Equity. E3’s mission is to redefine educational expectations so that every student, regardless of starting point, is engaged and thriving in a school that practices a culture of academic success for all (http://www.e3ed.org/about-e3).

This video was significant to me because it caused me to reflect on ways to create culturally relevant pedagogy. Furthermore, the video was especially significant to my area of study, as it examines how critical teacher involvement is, as it relates to culture and the classroom. The video contains implications that teacher education and creating culturally inclusive schools and classroom environments is relevant. The video challenges educators to examine the impact of cultural resilience. The video offers a very unique look at how a student’s journey through school takes on many life challenges. But making their way through those challenges is exactly the skills employers are looking for. I personally feel that it was very insightful to examine how students in bad situations show resiliency in their everyday struggle. They show this resiliency through:

  • Critical analysis
  • Adaptability
  • Cross-cultural and intercultural communication
  • Collaboration and innovation

This study has caused me to critically examine the relationships between student involvement and the educational achievement gap.

Another dimension of the video was low income and immigrant students need for culturally relevant pedagogy. Specifically, recommendations are offered for teacher preparation and in-service teacher professional development. I learned that educators must reconceptualize the way they teach in order to serve a more diverse student population. The video also gave some very interesting statistics I had not seen before. These statistics serve as a wake-up call for educators and administrators, in the fact that cultural sensitivity and diversity training programs should be a part of every educational program.

This video has a direct correlation to my own experiences. I began my teaching career in a predominantly minority school. As a new teacher, it was very important for me to understand the culture and teach the core and reconceptualize my teaching strategy. I did a lot self-reflection as some things worked and some things did not.

In conclusion, I firmly believe the impact of the three part video series on education research is profound. It opened my eyes to the need for culturally relevant pedagogy. As stated in the conclusion of the video “In order for student to be prepared for 21st century needs, educators must show students how to use their everyday skills so they can proudly stand up and say I am innovative, culturally resilient, adaptive, collaborative, and cross culturally aware.” I believe this statement speaks to how this knowledge can impact not just the teacher but also the student and learning community.

Participation Action Research; Uncovering the Ugly Truths

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Critical analysis of “Participatory Action Research and City Youth: Methodological Insights from the Council of Youth Research”

 

The aim of this blog is to analyze and evaluate the article “Participatory Action Research and City Youth: Methodological Insights from the Council of Youth Research” (Bautista et al, 2013), as it relates to this week’s theme; communities of practice within action research and leadership. The article explores how inner city youth of color get involved in the process of action research within their community of practice. The authors define this type of research as youth participatory action research YPAR (Bautista et al, 2013). From the beginning, I started to immediately connect with the scope of the study. As a product of a failing inner city school, I found the research to be insightful and I identified with many of the problems unearthed by the study. The inquiry proved to be of great value to the youth that participated in it, as they were forced to examine their “community of practice”, which was various high schools in and outside of their areas. At first the concept of social injustices in schools seemed to be quite ordinary, however the study revealed a much deeper, uglier side to inequalities in inner city education. What I thought was unique about this was, again the youth themselves were uncovering this information by contrasting their high school environment with other schools.

The field notes taken by the researchers provided in depth data and also generated new information for community members to share experiential knowledge. This rich information will allow for the community members to act as agents of change on issues that impact them directly (p.4). As I became engrossed in the findings of the study, I began to reflect on the article; Unveiling the Promise of Community Cultural Wealth to Sustaining Latina/o Students’ College Going Information Networks (Liou et al, 2009). This article touched on some of the same inner city school inequity issues that the Bautista article did. The concept I focused on in my analysis of both articles was impact. How in the Bautista article (2013), the impact was powerful. Powerful for the youth council researches as they saw the striking differences. At times it almost seemed unfair, like a slap in the face, or a punch to the gut. Inequality screamed out as the researcher describe their tour of Richside High School, with its planetarium, three cafeterias, and brand new science and technology building (p.10). Impact can also be seen and valued in the Liou article (Liou, 2009), as it examined the impact of socioeconomic factors leading to young people of color not having equal access to educational advancements. The impact of the lack of caring school adults such as counselors (p.549). According to the Liou article, studies show that students who have caring supportive adults involved in their lives perform better academically (Liou, 2009).

Both articles take an in-depth look at the inequalities of inner city schools and for the purposes of this blog they shall be considered communities of practice. The Bautista article however, struck a nostalgic and emotional chord with me. As the article described inner city schools with dirty bathrooms, bars on windows, and overcrowded classrooms. I reflected upon my high school environment, the stench of cigarettes and urine in the bathrooms, dirty cafeterias, and desks covered with gang affiliated graffiti. As an inner city youth I didn’t even realize there was anything wrong with my learning environment. I thought all high schools looked and smelled like that. And that is because I had never been to a nicer high school. In my opinion that is what makes this study so impactful. The youth in the YPAR got to experience these disparities first hand.

In conclusion, the examination of not only the Bautista article (2013) but the Liou (2009) article as well, provided me with a shocking and disturbing view at the impact of the inequalities of inner city schools. As shocking and impactful as the image of Arnold Schwartzeneggar hold a knife large enough to carve a buffalo with the caption “we’ve got to give every child in this state equal opportunities, equal education, equal learning materials, equal books, equal everything (p. 16).”

References

Bautista, M., Bertrand, M., Morrell, E., Scorza, D. & Matthews, C. (2013). Participatory Action   Research and City Youth: Methodological Insights From the Council of Youth Research.   Teachers College Record, 115(100303), 1­23.

Liou, D., Antrop­González, R. & Cooper, R. (2009). Unveiling the Promise of Community   Cultural Wealth to Sustaining Latina/o Students’ College­Going Information Networks.   Educational Studies, (45), 534­555.

Intercultural Learning and Diversity in Higher Education; Research Topic

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Intercultural Learning and Diversity in Higher Education; Research blog one

26 May 26, 2014

References

  1. Otten, M., (2003). Intercultural Learning and Diversity in Higher Education: Journal of Studies in International Education. Vol. 7 no. 1, 12-26

Accessed from: http://jsi.sagepub.com.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/content/7/1/12.short

 

Strengths, Contributions and Ways to Improve; Graphic Organizer

 

Organization: The article was coherent and the author did develop the argument. There was very little metalanguage used to anticipate and conclude. The headings and subheadings were useful in this article.

Contribution to Field: Contribution to the field was worthwhile and significant.

Literature Review: This article did not provide a literature review.

Theoretical Framework/Lens: The article clearly demonstrated coherence. The research focused on International intercultural pedagogy perspectives.

Data Collection: Data was collected from regions with an explicit diversity policy tradition in higher education: the United States, Canada, and Australia.

Analysis: The article had a profound impact on current education action research.

Findings: The findings of the article were not clear however the research does outline some assumptions about intercultural encounters and its meaning for intercultural learning.

Discussion/Conclusions: The article provides a strategy for setting up diversity activities and diversity plans aimed at intercultural learning.

Minor Editorial Comments: No editorial comments for the article.

Miscellaneous: No miscellaneous comments for the article at this time.

 

Intercultural Learning and Diversity in Higher Education

The article; Intercultural Learning and Diversity in Higher Education, discussed what can be understood by intercultural competence and how it relates to the quality of intercultural contacts rather than the quantity. The article also examined the concept of Internationalisation as it relates to the diversity discourse that has shaped the Anglo-American debate in the United States and Canada. The article goes on to discuss the concern for diversity and cultural pluralism in higher education in the United States. The article also goes on to discuss the need for curriculum change and teaching the influence of diversity practitioners as it relates to curriculum matters. I learned that growth of cultural pedagogy is limited because of the traditional claims of the faculties and academic departments. The author states still, more and more colleges and universities across the United States are transforming their curricula because college leaders increasingly recognize that knowledge about domestic and international diversity is essential for today’s students.

This article made me think about a component of intercultural competence I had not thought about before, international intercultural communication competence. This was a unique way of the examining the concept, as it takes the theory of intercultural communication competence and stretches beyond domestic borders. This study was significant to me as an educator and my experiences because of our ever expanding reach to foreign students. With online education being so popular, educators must know now look toward an international classroom. It is my goal to be at the forefront of academic research on intercultural communication both foreign and domestically.

I feel that the article Intercultural Learning and Diversity in Higher Education has a profound impact on current education action research. It has been cited in several other articles from various journals such as the Business and Professional Communication Quarterly article (2013); Intercultural Communication Apprehension and Emotional Intelligence in Higher Education: Preparing Business Students for Career Success. The afore mentioned article cites Otten as saying “the increasing internationalization of university campuses does not guarantee by itself that business students are receiving adequate intercultural communication instruction (Otten, 2003).” Research suggests that despite the rise internationalization, many institutions possess an achievement ethos that requires a commitment to excellence.

The Enemy of Polygeny

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Analysis of Journal Article “The Mismeasure of Man” by Stephen Jay Gould

The aim of this blog is to analyze and evaluate the article The Mismeasure of Man (Gould, 1981), as it relates to this week’s theme, Balance and Scholar Identity. The importance of this concept is seen in every human being as we strive to maintain balance, and achieve our identity. Whether that identity is social, spiritual, or scholarly, it is important to establish one. The article from Gould’s 1981 publication was an excellent piece to explore and investigate, as it made me questions the origins of my own identity. As I read the article I was surprised, disgusted, angered and offended. As an African American male, it is very hard to imagine and accept that society identified African slaves, my ancestors, as descendants from an ape species.

Prior to reading this article I had very little knowledge of the concept of Polygeny or Craniometry. I found it very interesting that our Country’s fore fathers, held closely the idea that people of color were inferior and those devoid of color were created in Gods own image.

The Africans (slaves) and the indigenous Native Americans didn’t stand a chance at equality. Scientifically, the deck was stacked against them. Not only were we not considered equal, we were considered a different species. In Medicine Stories (Levins Morales, 1998), the author talks about how the slavers that kidnapped millions of West African people found endless ways to justify their behavior, even to the extent of claiming that slavery was a civilizing influence on the lives of the enslaved.

The idea of biological inferiority was common knowledge and was widely accepted by society, including our Country’s founders. These ideas were substantiated by science, research, and inquiry. Only one problem, the research was wrong.

Samuel George Morton’s was considered the most reputable and respected scholar on the theory of Polygeny. His theories were rooted in science. He studied Craniometry as the science to determine intelligence in different species. His research was extensive, but very faulty. Which led to an absolute incorrect premise that smaller skulls meant smaller brain capacity, thus less intelligent. Although his collection of human skulls was vast and he dedicated his life’s work to the idea that the Negro people were inferior mentally and physically, he was ultimately put to shame by his Mismeasurement of man.

In conclusion, I could not help but think about how this article relates to my scholar identity and my scholarly journey. Action research is a vital component of both. The article The Mismeasure of Man was a brilliant example of how quality research, data, and facts rather than faulty premises are so very important. If his studies were conducted correctly, good ol’ boy Samuel Morton, could have changed the perception of an entire race of people and possibly changed the course of history. Indeed, one of the core values of this program and my scholar identity is impact. The readings made me reflect on the impact of science and the public perception of people of color for centuries.

“There is a physical difference between the white and black races which I believe will forever forbid the two races living together on terms of social and political equality.” – Abraham Lincoln

References

Gould, S.J. (1981).  The Mismeasure of Man.  New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company.

Levins Morales, A. (1998). Medicine Stories: History, Culture and the Politics of Identity. Cambridge: South End Press.